Module 1: How do We Learn? Theories of Multimedia Learning (Sept 15-28th)

Overview

Multimedia Learning Theory is concerned with HOW we learn. How do different types of media impact how we receive, process and retain information? How does that change when we combine media to create multimedia? How do our design choices impact the learning? How do we reduce the ‘noise’ that gets in the way of learning? How do we build multimedia that helps learners tackle difficult tasks? How do we make sure that no learners are left behind? These are questions we’ll come back to again and again as we explore different types of interactive and multimedia learning in this course. The readings and videos in this module will introduce you to the work of Robert Mayer, whose research forms the foundation of this work.

Why does this matter? A key skill in any profession is the ability to communicate clearly, persuasively and effectively. Decades of research have shown that the principles that we will work with in this course increase retention, engagement and the long-term encoding of information. These are powerful tools for creating effective learning experiences. Over the course of this term, we’ll examine and apply these principles using a variety of tools while exploring techniques like Design Thinking, Active Learning and Storytelling. By the end of the course, you will have created a number of multimedia and interactive multimedia learning objects using these tools and brought them together to build a lesson that makes effective use of them.

In this first module we take a closer look at the theories underlying Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning and some of the principles aimed at reducing extraneous cognitive load and managing intrinsic cognitive load in multimedia learning. We’ll also try our hand at screencasting, one of the easier multimedia learning objects to create and something you will definitely use in the future, especially if you are teaching anything online.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module you will be able to:  

• Describe the basic components of Cognitive Load Theory.  
• Describe Paivo’s Dual Coding Theory and its importance in learning design 
• Define intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load  
• Identify three cognitive learning theories that underlie Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) 
• Describe the core principles of the CTML designed to reduce extraneous cognitive load, manage intrinsic load and maximize germane load. 
• Apply core principles of Mayer’s CTML to a screencast design 

Read/Watch

In each module you’ll find a list of media and multimedia illustrating and expanding on the ideas and techniques introduced. Although there may be some repetition between sources, looking at a variety of examples can greatly help your understanding of the underlying theories.

• Cognitive Load Theory 1, CLT2, CLT3, CLT4 (2 min each) If you’re not a student in the Faculty of Education you may not have encountered this foundational theory before. These four short videos will give you a quick introduction. (2 min each)  
• Cognitive Load Theory, How Do I Apply It? (5 min) – Applying Cognitive Load Theory to the way we interact with media. (5 min) 
• Dual Coding Theory: The Complete Guide for Teachers – Lots of good examples in this overview of dual coding theory 
• The Principles of Multimedia Learning (15 min) – An introduction to Robert Mayer’s work along with practical suggestions for addressing each principle in the creation of multimedia learning objects. We will be referring to these principles throughout the course  
• Mayer’s Principles of Multimedia Learning  (5 min each):Redundancy , Coherence , Signaling , Contiguity , Segmenting ,  Pretraining, Modality 
• Effective educational videos | Center for Teaching | Vanderbilt University (15 min) – Applying Mayer’s principles to creating effective video for learning. 
• General Tips for Academic Reflections (10 min) – A large portion of the assessment for this course involves reflecting on your learning in your WordPress blog at the end of each Module. These tips will help you create insightful posts that demonstrate your understanding and application of the key principles in the course.

Resources

Mayer’s Multimedia Principles – Bookmark this summary of Mayer’s principles – it will help you apply them to your reflections throughout the term, a key learning outcome.

The Reflector’s Toolkit – Are you new to this mode of reflective learning? Concerned about what’s expected of you as a student? This toolkit will help orient you to the process of answering reflective questions as part of your learning and assessment.

How We Learn

In Education, we study how people learn in order to be able to create better learning experiences – experiences that resonate with learners and promote effective learning. Cognitive Load Theory proposes that learners have finite cognitive resources. Designing learning experiences that make efficient use of these resources will ultimately create more effective learning. 

As we study the theory of interactive and multimedia learning and practice integrating the principles and promising practices that are being actively researched, think about what resonates for you as a learner and what doesn’t. What seems intuitive about these principles and what surprises you? Is there anything that seems to be missing? How are these principles being applied in the design of this course? In other courses you’ve taken?

Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) is founded on three cognitive science principles:

1.Limited capacity (Cognitive Load Theory)

Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory proposes that different types of memory, particularly working memory, have limited capacities. Overloading these capacities leads to inefficient and ineffective learning. This limited capacity compels us as learning designers to come up with strategies for using it efficiently.

2. Dual Coding Theory

Allan Paivio’s theory suggests that there are two separate systems in our brains – one that handles language and verbal information and another that handles images. This separation gives us two channels in which we can process information at the same time. This gives us some additional capacity that we can make use of as a learning designer.

3. Active Processing

Mayer theorizes that we create logical representations in our minds through an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information. This is called Active Processing. Learning designers can help support this process by designing lessons that encourage students to engage in these activities.    

Principles of Multimedia Learning

Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning is based on the idea that the brain doesn’t interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and auditory information separately. Instead, we select elements and organize them dynamically to produce logical mental representations (Active Processing). When you learn something new, you integrate it with this existing mental representation, or you make a new one. And since language and images are processed separately (Dual Coding Theory), you can provide more information at the same time without overwhelming someone’s cognitive capacity (Cognitive Load Theory). In order to make use of this theory to design media and multimedia, we need to take a look at the kind of cognitive load that different types and different presentations of media create.

Extraneous Cognitive Load

Extraneous load is cognitive load caused by poor design – for example, a web site without a coherent menu, software that doesn’t have intuitive labels for its buttons, a block of text that lacks headers and subheadings – anything that draws on cognitive resources without contributing to learning. 

These four principles from Mayer’s theory are focused on reducing extraneous cognitive load:

Intrinsic Cognitive Load

We just looked at Mayer’s principles and their application as a means of removing extraneous cognitive load – that is, load that is not related to learning. Now we take a look at intrinsic load, sometimes referred to as essential load, which is related to how difficult the learning task is for the learner.

Challenging tasks have a lot of learning value so we don’t want to eliminate intrinsic load entirely. We just want to make sure that we manage it by supporting learners effectively when we create multimedia learning materials. It’s important to note that the same task might have a different intrinsic load for different people in different circumstances. So, giving them control over the pace of their learning is an important strategy.

Here are the three principles related to managing intrinsic (or essential) load:

• Segmenting: This is also known as ‘chunking’ in the world of Instructional Design. Break big ideas or complex systems down into smaller steps so that you can gradually add complexity to the picture and let users control the pace. Look at the hand structure diagram below and take note of the design choices. How well does this support the intrinsic load of the learning objective?

Rather than showing every part of the hand at the same time, the hand structure diagram example below (#2) starts with just the bone structure. Later on you can overlay other structures one at a time so that the learner has an opportunity to build a mental model of the hand. If it were part of an interactive slide show you could include a set of controls so that learners can control the speed at which new information is introduced or go back and review earlier structures. (Note that the designer also removed some extraneous load in Diagram #2 by colour coding the categories of bones in the hand and making sure that the labels and structures of the hand are matched. They also follow the Contiguity principle by keeping the labels close to the structures they represent and the Coherence principle by ensuring that the content is focused and relevant.)

_{Diagrams from Patti Shank, Graphics in Learning, 2022 (see Bibliography)}

• Pretraining: Pretraining lays the foundation for learning by making sure that the terminology is clear up front. Rather than jump into a complex diagram of a hand with a lot of new information, Diagram #2 defines the names for the bones and explains their role in the system. With that foundation, you can move on to add more complexity to the information knowing that learners can connect it to what they’ve already learned.

• Modality: And finally, the modality principle holds that narration and a diagram, rather than labels and a diagram create more effective learning. In other words, saying the words and showing the picture is more effective than showing the words and the picture. Although some of these principles are still in the process of being researched and tested the Modality principle actually has the strongest evidence of any of the principles. Think about the dual coding theory that we looked at last week and the two separate channels for visual and audio input. The evidence also shows that this narration without text works best when the material is complex, the presentation is fast-paced, and the learners are familiar with the words. You may not want to do this with a new concept, using language that’s unfamiliar to your audience, or with an audience who may not speak your language fluently. 

In our hand structure diagram example #2 above, if you were presenting this to first year medical students, words like ‘phalange’ and ‘metacarpal’ may not be familiar to the audience and you probably would want to show the words on the screen. But if you were presenting this to a room full of hand surgeons, it might be fine to narrate instead of labeling these structures. The intrinsic load of the hand surgeons will not be the same as the intrinsic load of a first year medical student. 

Social Cues

There are a few final principles from Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning related to social cues that have also been found to be effective in managing intrinsic cognitive load and promoting learning:

• Personalization Principle: Research shows that people learn better when information is presented using conversational language, rather than more formal speech. That means using contractions (e.g., ‘it’s’ vs. ‘it is’) and speaking in the first or second person (e.g., I, we, our, you). It’s also important to use polite speech (e.g., ‘you might like to’, ‘let’s’) and speak as naturally as possible. This is harder than you might think when there’s a camera pointing at you.

• Voice Principle: When narration is spoken in a human voice, rather than a machine voice, the research shows that more learning takes place. But machine language has progressed to the point where many people can’t tell the difference anymore. There may be a need to test this principle again given the new developments in this area. What do you think? Can you always tell a machine voice from a human one?

• Image Principle: When recording screencasts or presentations, people sometimes decide to put their own image on the screen as well as the slide. This may serve a purpose if there’s a need to reinforce the instructor presence in a course. But the research shows that this does not add to learning. In fact, it may distract from the message in your presentation.

Germane Cognitive Load

Germane cognitive load is the load that is just at the right level to ensure that the learner is learning new things but not overloaded to the point where they’re unable to retain the new information or skill. It’s having just the right information at your fingertips, exactly when you need it, to do the task at hand that will enable you to learn the skill or concept and encode it in your long-term memory. Just like intrinsic load, germane load is individual – what I need and what you need to create new schema in our long-term memories might be quite different. We all have different experiences and background knowledge to draw on and connect to as we build new schema or connect to existing schema in our long-term memory. When you reduce the extraneous cognitive load there is more room for germane and intrinsic load and therefore, a greater likelihood that the learner will be able to encode something new.

Explore: Screencasting

In every module we explore the concepts that we are studying by trying out new tools and processes. These experiments are an integral part of your blog posts and will help prepare you for your final group project. There is no expectation of perfection in these experiments – exploration is the key here so take a big swing and if you miss, share what you have, explain your thinking and what you’ll do differently next time.

In this module you will create a screencast and incorporate it into your blog post. The subject can be anything you like as long as it’s designed for a learning purpose. As you create your screencasts, think about the extraneous, intrinsic and germane load of what you’re trying to teach this particular set of learners. Try using these principles to build an effective scaffold for learners, free from distractions, so that they can manage this load effectively.

Screencasting is recording a video of a computer screen, usually with narration and sometimes moving back and forth between the narrator and screen. Narrating a presentation is a common approach to screencasting but capturing dynamic lessons and experiments on your screen is also possible. Consider the Khan Academy videos – using a whiteboard to show the progression of mathematical equations, scientific processes, and more. You can capture anything you see on your screen so think about how to use it dynamically to illustrate a concept.

While AI tools exist to create screencasts quickly (and rather predictably), for the purposes of this exploration I want you to try creating one from scratch rather than relying on this type of automation. You will learn more about the capabilities of the media and how to bring your own creative spin to it if you create your own screencast.

Here are some tools to check out:

• Screencastify (a Chrome plugin)
• ScreenPal (formerly called Screencast-o-matic)
• Zoom (run a Zoom meeting and record yourself)
• Powerpoint (
• Camtasia
• Explain Everything (Mac only mobile app)
• OBS Studio (a more complex tool for professional results)
• Movavi Screen Recorder
• Loom

If screencasting is very familiar to you, consider trying a different software tool to see what it has to offer. Remember, you don’t need to buy any of this software – using free software with watermarks and limitations is perfectly acceptable in this course.

Reflection Questions

These questions are here to prompt your thinking about the module for the blog post you will need to create as part of Assignment 1. There’s no need to answer every question (unless you want to) – choose one or two that resonate with you and your experiences in exploring this topic or come up with your own. These reflections will be in addition to the screencast experiment you will add to your blog post this week. In every blog post and assignment I’m looking for your ability to connect the principles and theories to the practice.

• Of all the principles of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning we looked at in this module, which seem most intuitive to you? Which ones surprised you?
• Which principles did you have in mind when you were creating your screencast? Which were you able to employ and which were more challenging to follow?
• Who did you imagine as the audience for this screencast? How did that impact your design choices?
• Provide an example of a multimedia learning principle that you have intuitively followed in the past, and an example of a multimedia learning principle that you have not followed in the past. What will you do differently now?

Here’s a sample blog from a previous student (with her permission)

To Do

1. Follow the Announcements forum in Brightspace for weekly updates.
2. Create a screencast using one of the suggested tools in the Explore section or one of your own choosing that does not make use of Generative AI.
3. Create your blog post for Module 1 in your own WordPress site based on this module’s themes and reflection questions. Add your screencast and reflect on your process of creating it.
4. Meet with your learning pod to discuss your posts.
5. Comment on at least one blog post in your learning pod.
6. Sign up for a date to meet with the instructor as a group with your learning pod.

*Still struggling to set up your WordPress blog? Let me know as soon as possible if you’re running into problems. I can follow up with OpenETC if necessary.

Bibliography

Interested in taking a deeper dive into some of these topics? Explore some of these sources below:

Clark, J. & Paivio, A., Dual Coding Theory and Education, Educational Psychology Review, VoL 3, No. 3, 1991

Pickering, JD (2017) Measuring Learning Gain: Comparing Anatomy Drawing Screencasts and Paper-Based Resources. Anatomical Sciences Education, 10 (4). pp. 307-316. ISSN 1935-9772

Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2014). Principles for reducing extraneous processing in multimedia learning: Coherence, signaling, redundancy, spatial contiguity, and temporal contiguity. In R.E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 279-315). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Paas, F., Sweller, J. (2014). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In R.E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 27-42). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139547369 

McCue, Rich, Sketchnoting Workshop, Digital Scholarship Commons, University of Victoria Library.

Rohe, Mike (2013), The Sketchnote Handbook, Peachpit Press

Rosenthal Tolisano, Sylvia & Hale, Janet (2018) A Guide to Documenting Learning, Corwin Press

Shank, Patti (2022), Graphics In Learning: Using Them Effectively – eLearning Industry
DeBell, Andrew (2020), How to Use Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning, Waterbear Learning

Young, Scott H. (2022), Cognitive Load Theory and its Applications for Learning, ScottHYoung Services